The Sign and The Covenant

Part 2: The Historical Covenants and Their Fulfillment in Christ

Where We Have Been and Where We are Going.

In Part 1 we established the vocabulary necessary for what follows: covenant as an oath-bound arrangement defined by its ranking, rules, rewards, and ratification; grace as a spectrum in which only saving grace justifies and secures; and the New Covenant as the singular arrangement in which God guarantees every term. With those tools in place, we can now trace the covenantal thread through Scripture's unfolding drama — not to catalogue covenants for their own sake, but to ask the question driving this entire series: who are the people of God, and what signs mark their membership?

The messiah is coming indeed. But when? When will the mother of the living look upon her seed as her Savior? Somewhere to the west, an angel was swinging a fiery sword. Judgment came. But more judgment remained. The man and his wife were exiled from paradise. The path to the tree of life was completely cut off. There was no hope. There was no victory. Except for a promise that was sealed with blood. The enemy would be crushed. The deceiver laid bare. But not before that woman’s seed passed through the hot wrath of God, defeated the dragon, died, and came back victorious, clutching in his pierced hands the fruit that, without, would forever be out of reach to the race of Adam.

Where would this messiah arise? When would He come and cleanse humanity of the poison running through their veins? Could it be this child? Could it be Abel? Could he be the one to bring life to the world? No. His lifeblood was poured out and the rocks cried out for justice. Perhaps his replacement; maybe Seth would crush the enemy beneath his feet. Alas, he too came to an end. This pattern continued for ages and for most of that time God remained relatively silent. And when the poison had corrupted the whole of humanity, God saw fit to show favor to a single man. Noah. Could this man be the long awaited seed? Or would he, like those before him, succumb to the venom of the asp?

This is where we find ourselves in the story of God’s redemption of the cosmos. A covenant broken. Humanity cursed. The world— baptized in judgment rather than mercy. And a single man and his household left to hold the reins.

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The Noahic Covenant: Preserving the Stage

At last, when the waters subsided, and Noah peered through ascending smoke to the heavens, God delivered yet another promise; a promise not to redeem, but to preserve¹ (Genesis 9:8–17). (Remember the distinction from Part 1: this is not a groundbreaking ceremony but a maintenance contract. God is not inaugurating a new covenant with Noah — He is affirming the created order so the redemptive drama can continue. The stage is being preserved.)

Ranking: God as sovereign over creation; Noah and all living creatures as subjects.

Rules: Be fruitful. Multiply. Exercise dominion. These affirm the original mandate, applying the foundational rules to a world now stained by judgment (heqim berit—establishing/affirming rather than cutting anew) (Genesis 9:1, 7).

Rewards/Retribution: The world will endure. Seasons will continue. Never again will a flood destroy all flesh. Yet bloodshed demands justice—blood for blood (Genesis 9:5–6).

Ratification: The rainbow, arcing across storm-darkened skies, God’s oath written in light and water (Genesis 9:12–13).

Nowhere does this covenant’s terms promise redemption. It does however promise preservation— common grace serving redemptive grace. God maintains the stage so the drama of salvation can unfold.

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The Abrahamic Covenant: Promise and Flesh Intertwined

With Abraham, the redemptive plot thickens. Once again, the heavens were silent for hundreds of years. As people spread across the land, they carried the traditions and the stories of their fathers with them. Not a full message. Perhaps they had no account of the exact ordering of the creation week; we simply do not know. But murmurs of something far sweeter could still be heard when smoke rose and when rain fell. “A messiah is coming! The seed of the woman will prevail.” From the midst of a pagan land, God called forth a single man. And from the womb of his barren wife, the sure promise of God would roll forth. This too would be sealed by the oath of a covenant. The terms of that covenant promised three specific rewards: lineage, land, and lords—initially fulfilled in Canaan and ultimately in Christ (Genesis 12:1–3; 17:4–8; 22:17–18; Galatians 3:16).

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Genesis 12: The Promise

In Genesis 12, God appears to Abram in Ur and speaks a word that will echo through millennia:

“I will make of you a great nation, and I will bless you and make your name great, so that you will be a blessing. I will bless those who bless you, and him who dishonors you I will curse, and in you all the families of the earth shall be blessed” (Genesis 12:1–3).

This is a sure promise. A divine intention. But no oath has been sworn. No covenant yet cut. These were sure promises, but no formal covenant existed (Genesis 12:1–3; Hebrews 6:13–15).

It is Genesis 3:15 in sharper focus—a hint, a beacon, a pledge. But as of chapter twelve, the covenant awaits its moment.

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Genesis 15: The Ratification

The oath comes in Genesis 15, where a covenant is cut (karat) in flesh. God reiterates His promise, and Abram believes: “And he believed the LORD, and he counted it to him as righteousness” (v. 6).

Then comes the covenant ceremony—strange, solemn, unforgettable.

Animals are slaughtered, their bodies severed and arranged in ghastly rows. In ancient treaty ceremonies, both parties would pass between the pieces, invoking upon themselves the fate of the slain beasts should they break the oath. But here, something astonishing occurs:

Only God passes through.

A smoking firepot and flaming torch—symbols of divine presence—move between the pieces while Abram sleeps (v. 18). God alone accepts responsibility. God alone bears the curse should the covenant fail. The covenant is ratified (Genesis 15:6–21).

Ranking: God as sovereign; Abraham and his descendants as subjects.

Rules: God unilaterally guarantees the Rewards (Genesis 15:13–21).

Rewards/Retribution: Lineage, land, and lords, with individuals subject to exclusion for disobedience (e.g., Genesis 17:14).

Ratification: God’s oath through the animal ceremony, sealed in blood and fire (Genesis 15:17–18).

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Genesis 17: The Sign and the Dual Nature

In Genesis 17, when Abram is ninety-nine, God appears again:

“Walk before Me and be blameless, that I may make My covenant between Me and you” (v. 2).

God expands the reward to include many nations and declares: “I will establish [heqim]² My covenant between Me and you and your offspring after you throughout their generations for an everlasting covenant, to be God to you and to your offspring after you” (v. 7). (Notice the verb. God is not cutting a new covenant here — He is affirming and extending what was already ratified in Genesis 15. Circumcision enters not as the sign of a new arrangement but as the sign of an existing one. This distinction will matter enormously when we ask what baptism signals).

Circumcision is given as the covenant sign³. Every male, eight days old, must bear this mark in his flesh. Individuals neglecting it face Retribution (v. 14). The corporate Rewards are secure, but individual participation requires adherence to the Rules, reflecting the covenant’s dual aspects (Genesis 17:1–14).

We must let the text guide our interpretation. While categories like conditional and unconditional covenants are helpful, the Abrahamic Covenant has both aspects⁴: God guarantees corporate Rewards, but individuals must follow the Rules to partake, and some face Retribution⁵ (Genesis 17:9–14; 18:19).

Ranking, Rules, and Rewards/Retribution in the Abrahamic Covenant:

• Ranking: God, Abraham, and his offspring (Genesis 17:7; 22:17–18)

• Rules: God secures corporate Rewards, but individuals must follow Rules (e.g., circumcision) or face Retribution (Genesis 17:9–14)

• Rewards/Retribution: A lineage (offspring and the Offspring), a land (Canaan and a heavenly country), and lords (kings and the King of kings). Disobedience leads to exclusion (Genesis 17:6–8, 14; Hebrews 11:8–10)

• Ratification: God’s oath in Genesis 15, affirmed in Genesis 17 (Genesis 15:17–18; 17:7–14)

The Abrahamic Covenant is gracious—God ensures its fulfillment. Yet it requires adherence to Rules, and those who fail to comply face Retribution (Genesis 17:9–14; Romans 4:11–13).

The Abrahamic Covenant is cut with Abraham and affirmed with Isaac and Jacob (Genesis 17:19–21; 26:2–5; 28:13–15). The promise marches forward, carried on the shoulders of a chosen lineage, moving inexorably toward the hill where the Seed will be pierced.

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The Mosaic Covenant: Law and Limitation

This is not the only divine-human covenant God cuts (karat). In fulfillment of Genesis 15:13–14, God rescues Abraham’s offspring from Egypt, remembering His covenant with the patriarchs (Exodus 2:24; 6:5; 12:40–41).

At Sinai’s base, having brought them through the sea on dry ground, God speaks:

“If you will indeed obey My voice and keep My covenant, you shall be My treasured possession among all peoples, for all the earth is mine; and you shall be to Me a kingdom of priests and a holy nation” (Exodus 19:5–6).

This builds on the Abrahamic covenant—Israel remains under it (Exodus 19:3–8; Deuteronomy 7:7–9). Yet something new is about to be cut.

However, in Exodus 34:10 and Deuteronomy 5:2–3, a new covenant is karat at Horeb, distinct from the patriarchal covenant:

“Not with our fathers did the LORD make this covenant, but with us, who are all of us here alive today” (Deuteronomy 5:3).

The “fathers” are the patriarchs mentioned in Deuteronomy 4:31⁶. Context may allow for the previous generation⁷ as well. Regardless, Israel stands under multiple covenants simultaneously (Exodus 34:10, 27–28; Deuteronomy 5:2–3).

Ranking: God as sovereign King; Israel as His vassal nation.

Rules: Obey God’s voice. Keep His covenant—the Ten Commandments and all attendant laws (Exodus 20:1–17; Deuteronomy 5:6–21).

Rewards/Retribution: Treasured possession and priestly nation for obedience; curses for disobedience—drought, defeat, exile, death (Deuteronomy 28; Leviticus 26).

Ratification: God’s oath at Sinai, sealed with blood sprinkled on the altar and the people (Exodus 24:7–8).

The rules aim to ensure Israel’s holiness, setting them apart as a light to the nations (Deuteronomy 6:24–25). Joshua 23:14–16 affirms God’s faithfulness but warns that disobedience, such as idolatry, brings Retribution.

Deuteronomy 27 and 29 note Israel’s lack of a circumcised heart (29:4) yet expect temporal obedience (Deuteronomy 10:16; 29:4).

Covenant lawsuits against the northern kingdom (Amos) and southern kingdom (Jeremiah 2; 7:30) cite false worship, not uncircumcised hearts, as the basis for Retribution. While a circumcised heart is commanded of all image-bearers, the Mosaic Covenant’s Retribution focuses on external disobedience, not lack of saving faith (Amos 2:4–8; 5:21–27; Jeremiah 7:30–34).

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Comparing the Abrahamic and Mosaic Covenants

The Abrahamic Covenant has dual aspects, while the Mosaic Covenant focuses on corporate obedience. Both involve the same Ranking (God and Israel) but have different Rules and Rewards/Retribution, indicating distinct substances (Exodus 19:5–6; Genesis 17:7–14; Galatians 3:17–18).

They are related but distinct, each serving a unique role in God’s unfolding plan.

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The Priestly Covenant: Zeal and Perpetual Intercession

In the midst of Israel’s covenantal drama, God cuts a focused affirmation within the Mosaic framework—a covenant with Phinehas, son of Eleazar and grandson of Aaron (Numbers 25:10–13).

This arises from a moment of crisis: Israel, encamped at Shittim, falls into idolatry and immorality with Moabite women, provoking a plague that slays thousands. Phinehas, jealous with God’s jealousy, pierces the offenders with a spear, turning back divine wrath and making atonement for the people.

God responds: “Behold, I give [natan] to him My covenant of peace, and it shall be to him and to his descendants after him the covenant of a perpetual priesthood” (Numbers 25:12–13).

Ranking: God as sovereign; Phinehas and his line as faithful priests within Israel.

Rules: Uphold holiness and priestly duties—work and keep the sanctuary, guarding against unholy intrusion (Numbers 3:7–8; Deuteronomy 6:14–15).

Rewards/Retribution: Covenant of peace (divine favor, protection from wrath); perpetual priesthood (stable mediation for Israel). Retribution implied for unfaithfulness, as in other priestly lines (1 Samuel 2:22–30).

Ratification: God’s direct oath to Moses—His word binding the promise.

Here, nātan běrît functions within the broader Mosaic economy—not identical to the national covenant, but granted as a blessing that secures a faithful priesthood for the people formed under it—thereby enabling the ongoing mediation and atonement essential to that covenant⁸.

This covenant, though narrow, plays a pivotal role: it ensures priestly intercession amid Israel’s failings, bridging to the eternal Priest after the order of Melchizedek (Psalm 110:4; Hebrews 7:23–25). More importantly it reminds us of our greatest plight and God’s faithfulness. We are a people who were created to dwell with our Creator, yet our entire race has been doomed by sin. Yet God’s faithfulness and purpose remains on full display. In the midst of wickedness, God promised to provide a method for ceremonial holiness. This ceremonial holiness served two roles. Not only is it a reminder of our need, but it was a provision for restoration— that restoration was real and repetitious and ultimately pointed forward to the true king-priest who would come. (Only a brief mention is warranted here, but a further treatment of this covenant and its drastic implications will be addressed more fully later in the series)

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The Davidic Covenant: The King Who Will Reign Forever

Centuries pass. Israel enters the land. Judges rise and fall. Then comes a shepherd boy anointed king, a man after God’s own heart.

The Davidic Covenant (karat, 2 Samuel 7) involves:

Ranking: God, David, and his obedient son (2 Samuel 7:12–16; Psalm 89:3–4).

Rules: Obedience to God’s law. The throne remains contingent on faithfulness (2 Chronicles 6:16; Psalm 132:11–12).

Rewards/Retribution: A perpetual throne for obedience, ultimately fulfilled in Christ (Psalm 89:28–37; Luke 1:32–33). Disobedience brings discipline, though the covenant line will not be cut off (2 Samuel 7:14–15).

Ratification: God’s oath to David, sworn with divine solemnity (Psalm 89:3–4). Its distinct rewards mark it as a separate covenant (Acts 13:22–23).

This covenant’s distinct reward—an everlasting throne—marks it as separate from both the Abrahamic and Mosaic covenants. It finds its fulfillment in Jesus, the Son of David, who sits enthroned at the Father’s right hand, reigning over an unshakeable kingdom.

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Distinct Covenants and Their Fulfillment in Christ

We stand now amid a forest of covenants, each one planted by divine decree:

• The Adamic covenant of works—demanding perfect obedience.

• The Noahic covenant—preserving creation’s order.

• The Abrahamic covenant—promising seed, land, and blessing.

• The Mosaic covenant—exposing sin, pointing forward.

• The Priestly covenant with Phinehas—securing faithful intercession.

• The Davidic covenant—securing an eternal throne.

The Abrahamic, Mosaic, Davidic, and New Covenants are each established by karat berit—cut, ratified, sealed with oath—not as affirmations of a single covenant (Genesis 15:18; Exodus 34:10; 2 Samuel 7:12–16; Jeremiah 31:31–34). The Priestly covenant with Phinehas uses natan berit, affirming the Mosaic framework (Numbers 25:12). Allowing Scripture to define their terms, these are related yet distinct covenants, each finding fulfillment in Christ (Luke 24:44–47; 2 Corinthians 1:20).

Westminster theologians suggest these covenants are administrations of a single Covenant of Grace, sharing the same substance⁹. This view emphasizes redemptive continuity, but the distinct Ranking, Rules, and Rewards/Retribution of each covenant suggest they are separate, with unique roles in God’s plan, culminating in the New Covenant (Hebrews 8:6–13).

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The New Covenant: The Covenant of Grace Unveiled

Jeremiah 31:31–34 describes the New Covenant, explicitly karat berit, as distinct from the Mosaic Covenant:

Ranking: God and the house of Israel/Judah (fulfilled in the elect; Romans 9:6–9).

Rules: God writes His law on their hearts (Jeremiah 31:33; Ezekiel 36:26–27; Hebrews 8:10).

Rewards/Retribution: All know God, and their sins are forgiven; no Retribution for covenant members, as God ensures fulfillment (Jeremiah 31:34; Hebrews 8:11–12; 10:14–18).

Ratification: Christ’s blood (Luke 22:20; Hebrews 8:6; 9:15–22).

Unlike the Abrahamic, Mosaic, and Davidic covenants, which included elect and non-elect, the New Covenant is exclusively for those with circumcised hearts¹⁰, provided by God (Ezekiel 36:26–27; John 6:37–39; Hebrews 8:10–12).

New Covenant members must obey (John 14:15), but God fulfills the Rules by granting a new heart and forgiveness through Christ (Hebrews 8:10–12; Ezekiel 36:26–27). Unlike prior covenants, all requirements for eternal Rewards are accomplished by God (Hebrews 10:10, 14; Philippians 2:13).

The Ranking remains consistent: God and Israel, from Abraham to Christ. However, the Rules and Rewards/Retribution differ, reflecting distinct substances (Romans 9:6–8; Galatians 3:16–18).

Old Testament saints (e.g., Adam, Abraham, Moses) believed God, and it was credited as righteousness (Genesis 15:6; Hebrews 11:24–26). However, their covenantal terms did not provide the new heart required for faith. They pointed to the coming Seed (Genesis 3:15), the Offspring (Galatians 3:16), and the eternal Priest (Hebrews 7:23–25).

Old Testament saints were saved by grace through faith, looking to the promised Messiah and the New Covenant that he would cut in history (Hebrews 11:13; John 8:56). Their covenants, while gracious in their own right, could not justify sinners before God on their own terms. They required prospective faith in the coming Mediator. The shadowy covenants were typological, pointing to the New Covenant’s better Rewards (Hebrews 8:6).

Old Testament covenants did not forgive sin or cleanse consciences in the heavenly tabernacle (Hebrews 10:1–4). Their sacrifices cleansed the flesh for everybody who was represented by the priest. Cleansing of the conscience came by way of faith alone; reception of the New Covenant’s benefits came only to those who possessed what was promised by the terms of the New Covenant(Hebrews 9:15; Romans 3:25–26). No God-given faith? No God given salvation. That new heart, faith, and forgiveness of sins is only covenanted and secured to people in the terms of one Divine-human covenant. All of the others remained but a shadow begging for the Light of the World. It is those people— and only those people— who belong to Christ and receive, in Him, the rewards of the Covenant of Grace. (Romans 8:9; Hebrews 8:10–12).

The long awaited Messiah has come. The covenant he provides has been cut. The redemption of his people— secured. His never-ending kingdom has been established.

Every week when his blood bought saints gather to celebrate God’s victory, they do so by tangible means of extraordinary grace. We hear his Word preached, we give thanksgiving for his body and his blood, and we participate in the reception of new saints who have been covered not only by the blood, but by the cleansing waters of grace— but the question remains. To whom do these things belong? Who should receive the ordinances of the Kingdom?

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Part 3

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This essay is drawn from a larger work currently in development. For clarity and readability in an online format, AI tools were used in an editorial capacity only. All theological content, arguments, and conclusions are the author’s own.

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Works Consulted for Part 2: The Historical Covenants and Their Fulfillment in Christ

Barcellos, Richard C. Getting the Garden Right: Adam’s Work and God’s Rest in Light of Christ. Cape Coral, FL: Founders Press, 2017. (Background on covenant of works and continuity to later covenants.)

Batzig, Nick. “Jesus and the Flaming Sword at the East Gate.” Feeding on Christ, March 13, 2015. https://feedingonchrist.org/jesus-and-the-flaming-sword-at-the-east-gate/.

Coxe, Nehemiah, and John Owen. Covenant Theology: From Adam to Christ. Edited by James M. Renihan, Ronald Miller, and Francisco Orozco. Appendix by Richard C. Barcellos. Reformed Baptist Academic Press, 2005. Kindle edition.

Denault, Pascal. The Distinctiveness of Baptist Covenant Theology. Revised Edition. Birmingham, AL: Solid Ground Christian Books, 2017. (Especially chapters on the Abrahamic and Mosaic covenants.)

Gentry, Peter J., and Stephen J. Wellum. Kingdom through Covenant: A Biblical-Theological Understanding of the Covenants. 2nd ed. Wheaton, IL: Crossway, 2018. (Detailed treatment of Noahic as preservative, Abrahamic dual strands, karat/heqim distinctions, and progression to the New Covenant.)

Gill, John. An Exposition of the Old Testament. Comment on Deuteronomy 5:3.

Horton, Michael. Introducing Covenant Theology. Grand Rapids: Baker Books, 2009. Originally published as God of Promise: Introducing Covenant Theology (Baker Books, 2006). Kindle edition. ISBN: 978-0-8010-7195-9.

Kline, Meredith G. “Deuteronomy.” In The Wycliffe Bible Commentary, edited by Charles F. Pfeiffer and Everett F. Harrison, 155–204. Chicago: Moody Press, 1962.

Kline, Meredith G. By Oath Consigned: A Reinterpretation of the Covenant Signs of Circumcision and Baptism. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1968. (Covenant ratification and oath-bearing elements.)

Kline, Meredith G. Kingdom Prologue: Genesis Foundations for a Covenantal Worldview. Eugene, OR: Wipf & Stock, 2006. (On covenant structure, Noahic as common grace preservation, and Abrahamic ratification; also addresses grant-type covenants including priestly elements within the Mosaic administration.)

Owen, John. An Exposition of the Epistle to the Hebrews. Vols. 5–7. Edited by William H. Goold. Edinburgh: Banner of Truth Trust, 1991. Reprint. (Especially on New Covenant superiority, fulfillment of Old Covenant types, and Jeremiah 31/Hebrews 8.)

Renihan, Samuel D. The Mystery of Christ, His Covenant, and His Kingdom. Cape Coral, FL: Founders Press, 2019. (Historical covenants, their distinct substances, and fulfillment in Christ.)

Robertson, O. Palmer. The Christ of the Covenants. Phillipsburg, NJ: P&R, 1980. (Classic overview of progression through Noahic, Abrahamic, Mosaic, and Davidic covenants.)

Van Dorn, Douglas. Covenant Theology: A Reformed Baptist Primer. Waters of Creation Publishing, 2014. (Especially p. 103 on the Levitical/priestly covenant as reinforcing the Mosaic covenant by surrounding it like the Tabernacle surrounds the Ark, securing faithful priesthood within the broader Mosaic economy.)

Vos, Geerhardus. The Doctrine of the Covenant in Reformed Theology. Monergism Books, 2012. Kindle edition. ISBN: 978-1-61979-414-6.

White, James R. “The Newness of the New Covenant (Part I).” Reformed Baptist Theological Review 1, no. 2 (July 2004): 144–168.

White, James R. “The Newness of the New Covenant (Part II).” Reformed Baptist Theological Review 2, no. 1 (January 2005): 83–104.

Williamson, Paul R. Sealed with an Oath: Covenant in God’s Unfolding Purpose. New Studies in Biblical Theology 23. Downers Grove, IL: IVP Academic, 2007. (Especially ch. 5 on the national/Mosaic covenant and its closely related priestly elements for maintaining relationship through mediation and atonement.)

1. On the Noahic covenant as preservative rather than redemptive, see Gentry and Wellum, Kingdom through Covenant (2nd ed.), who emphasize its role in maintaining the created order as the stage for redemption. Cf. Robertson, who likewise identifies its universal and common-grace character, though within a broader redemptive framework.

2. On the distinction between karat (“cut”), heqim (“establish/confirm”), and related covenant terminology, see Gentry and Wellum, Kingdom through Covenant.

3. When speaking of circumcision the discussion inevitably ends up in Romans 4. The Apostle Paul explicitly states that Abraham “received the sign of circumcision as a seal of the righteousness that he had by faith while he was still uncircumcised” (Rom. 4:11). This text is often taken to mean that circumcision, as such, functioned uniformly as a sign and seal of justifying righteousness for all who received it, and therefore serves as a direct antecedent to baptism as a covenant sign applied to believers and their children. But that conclusion does not follow from Paul’s argument.

Paul is not here defining the universal function of circumcision across every recipient. He is speaking specifically of Abraham, and specifically of a righteousness Abraham already possessed by faith prior to receiving the sign. The direction of the argument matters: circumcision is presented as confirming a prior reality, not establishing a general covenantal principle to be applied indiscriminately to all recipients.

This becomes immediately evident when we consider that the same sign was applied to individuals who did not share Abraham’s faith. Ishmael received circumcision (Gen. 17:23–26), yet Scripture is explicit that the line of promise—and therefore the covenantal inheritance in its redemptive sense—was not reckoned through him (Gen. 21:12; Rom. 9:7–8). The sign, therefore, cannot be said to seal the same reality in the same way to every recipient. For Abraham, it sealed the righteousness of faith already possessed. For others within his household, it marked inclusion within the outward, genealogical structure through which the promised Seed would come.

The force of Romans 4, then, is not to collapse these distinctions, but to establish that justification has always been by faith apart from works, and that Abraham himself stands as the paradigm of that reality. Circumcision follows that justification—it does not define its uniform administration. To read the verse as establishing a one-to-one sacramental equivalence across all recipients is to ask the text to do more than Paul intends.

4. For treatments of the Abrahamic covenant’s dual aspects (corporate and individual), see Gentry and Wellum, Kingdom through Covenant; Denault, The Distinctiveness of Baptist Covenant Theology; cf. Robertson, who emphasizes continuity but acknowledges internal distinctions.

5. The Genesis 15 blessings are secured by God apart from any effort of the covenant member. Genesis 17 indicates that the sign of circumcision is required (rule) and breaking that rule will cut you off from the covenant. This is not in any way to say that the accomplishment of God’s promises are in question or that they depend on humanities obedience. God secures a faithful people by way of election, regeneration, and faith; All works of God.

6. See Kline, Meredith G. “Deuteronomy.” In The Wycliffe Bible Commentary, edited by Charles F. Pfeiffer and Everett F. Harrison, 155–204. Chicago: Moody Press, 1962.

7. See Gill, John. An Exposition of the Old Testament. Comment on Deuteronomy 5:3.

8. This understanding aligns with several Reformed voices. Douglas Van Dorn describes the Levitical/priestly covenant as one that “figuratively and literally surrounds the Mosaic covenant like the Tabernacle and Temple surround the Ark,” reinforcing the weakness of the national covenant by securing a faithful priesthood for the benefit of the covenant people (see Covenant Theology: A Reformed Baptist Primer [2014], 103; cf. his discussion of the priestly covenant in Waters of Creation). Meredith G. Kline, drawing on the ancient Near Eastern distinction between suzerainty treaties and royal grants, identifies the Phinehasian covenant (Num 25:12–13) as a classic covenant of grant—a unilateral divine bestowal of perpetual priesthood and peace as a reward for faithful, atoning service—operating within the broader Mosaic administration while providing the priestly mediation essential to its ongoing function (Kingdom Prologue [2000], 237; see also his framework in Treaty of the Great King). Similarly, Paul R. Williamson notes that the national covenant with Israel included its priestly representatives, with the priestly elements running closely alongside the Mosaic covenant in purpose: maintaining the relationship between God and His people through atonement and mediation (Sealed with an Oath: Covenant in God’s Unfolding Purpose, NSBT 23 [2007], esp. ch. 5).

9. This is not a peripheral position. Geerhardus Vos and more recently Michael Horton have defended it with careful exegetical attention, and the debate deserves more than two sentences — though it should be noted that Horton’s Klinean framework partially complicates the classic Westminster formulation, treating the Mosaic covenant as a works covenant operating typologically within the broader covenant of grace, in ways that create unexpected common ground with the Baptist position even while remaining paedobaptist in conclusion. The argument of this series is simply that when each covenant is allowed to define its own terms — its ranking, rules, rewards, and retributions — the evidence points toward distinct substances rather than a single substance in varied dress. Readers who want the fullest engagement with the Westminster position are directed to the sources listed below: Vos, The Doctrine of the Covenant in Reformed Theology(Monergism Books, 2012); Horton, God of Promise: Introducing Covenant Theology (Baker Books, 2006). It is worth noting, however, that this critique is not a modern Baptist innovation. Nehemiah Coxe — writing in the same generation that produced the Westminster Standards — targeted the substance/administration distinction by name, stating that “the old covenant and the new differ in substance and not only in the manner of their administration.” John Owen’s exegesis of Hebrews 8:6–13, produced in the same period, provides the biblical-theological foundation on which Coxe’s argument rests. That two of the most formidable theological minds of the 17th century were making this argument contemporaneously with Westminster is not a footnote to the debate — it is the debate. For the Coxe/Owen material see: Nehemiah Coxe and John Owen, Covenant Theology: From Adam to Christ, edited by James M. Renihan, Ronald Miller, and Francisco Orozco, with an appendix by Richard C. Barcellos (Palmdale, CA: Reformed Baptist Academic Press, 2005; 20th Anniversary Edition, Cornwall: Broken Wharfe, 2025). For the modern recovery and systematization of their argument see Denault, The Distinctiveness of Baptist Covenant Theology, and Renihan, The Mystery of Christ, His Covenant, and His Kingdom.

10. See Owen, Exposition of Hebrews (esp. on Hebrews 8), who emphasizes the efficacy and definitiveness of the New Covenant promises.